@book{SimonsFennig2017,
  title = {Ethnologue: {{Languages}} of the World, Twentieth Edition},
  url = {https://www.ethnologue.com/},
  location = {{Dallas, Texas}},
  publisher = {{SIL} International},
  urldate = {2017-07-12},
  date = {2017},
  author = {Simons, Gary F. and Fennig, Charles D.}
}

@article{Berry1970,
  langid = {english},
  title = {A Note on the Prosodic Structure of {{Krio}}},
  volume = {36},
  issn = {0020-7071},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {International Journal of American Linguistics},
  date = {1970},
  pages = {266-267},
  author = {Berry, Jack}
}

@book{Holm1988,
  langid = {english},
  location = {Cambridge},
  title = {Pidgins and Creoles},
  isbn = {978-0-521-24980-5},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {1988},
  author = {Holm, John A.}
}

@book{Zarco1938,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Turnhout, Belgium}},
  title = {Dialecto Inglés-Africano o {{Broken}}-{{English}} de La Colonia Española Del {{Golfo}} de {{Guinea}}},
  publisher = {{H. Proost}},
  date = {1938},
  author = {Zarco, Mariano de}
}

@article{Lipski1992,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Pidgin {{English}} Usage in {{Equatorial Guinea}} ({{Fernando Poo}})},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {0172-8865},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {English World-Wide},
  date = {1992},
  pages = {33-57},
  author = {Lipski, John M.}
}

@book{Fyfe1962,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {A History of {{Sierra Leone}}},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {1962},
  author = {Fyfe, Christopher}
}

@book{Huber1999,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Ghanaian {{Pidgin English}} in Its {{West African}} Context: {A} Sociohistorical and Structural Analysis},
  file = {Includes CD-ROM},
  isbn = {978-90-272-4882-4},
  number = {G24},
  series = {Varieties of English Around the World},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1999},
  author = {Huber, Magnus}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2013,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {Pichi},
  volume = {1},
  isbn = {978-0-19-969140-1},
  url = {http://apics-online.info/contributions/19},
  abstract = {The Atlas presents full colour maps of the distribution among the pidgins and creoles of 130 structural linguistic features drawn from their phonology, syntax, morphology, and lexicons. In addition there are some maps with relevant sociolinguistic features. The languages include pidgins, creoles, and other contact languages based on English, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and French and languages from Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Americas. Each map is accompanied by a detailed description and discussion of the feature. The project is the successor to the successful World Atlas of Language Structures and draws on the same linguistic, cartographic, and computing knowledge and skills of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig. The Atlas is published alongside a three-volume Survey of Pidgins and Creoles which describes the histories and linguistic characteristics of 76 languages. The books have been designed, edited, and written by the world's leading experts in the field and represent the most systematic and comprehensive guide ever published to the world's pidgins, creoles and mixed languages. Individually and together the books are a unique resource of outstanding value for linguists of all persuasions throughout the world.},
  booktitle = {The Atlas of {{Pidgin}} and {{Creole}} Language Structures: {{English}}-Based and {{Dutch}}-Based Languages},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  urldate = {2018-03-02},
  date = {2013},
  pages = {194--205},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Michaelis, Susanne and Maurer, Philippe and Haspelmath, Martin and Huber, Magnus}
}

@book{Hammarstrom2017,
  location = {{Jena}},
  title = {Glottolog 3.0.},
  url = {http://glottolog.org},
  publisher = {{Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History}},
  urldate = {2017-07-07},
  date = {2017},
  author = {Hammarström, Harald and Forkel, Robert and Haspelmath, Martin}
}

@article{SalaNgefac2006,
  title = {What's Happening to {{Cameroon Pidgin}}? {{The}} Depidginisation Process in {{Cameroon Pidgin English}}},
  volume = {36},
  journaltitle = {Philologie im Netz (PhiN)},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {31--43},
  author = {Sala, Bonaventura Mbiydzenyuy and Ngefac, Aloysius}
}

@article{Yakpo2011,
  title = {Lenguas de {{Guinea Ecuatorial}}: {{D}}e La Documentación a La Implementación},
  issn = {16991788},
  abstract = {Este artículo pretende proporcionar una panorámica general sobre la situación actual de la documentación de las lenguas ecuatoguineanas y la implementación de políticas lingüísticas en el país, y presenta algunas ideas sobre cómo avanzar en la promoción de las lenguas africanas de Guinea Ecuatorial en la esfera pública. También proporciona un breve ejemplo de caso para la documentación en Guinea Ecuatorial, a través de mi propio trabajo descriptivo del pichi, la lengua criolla de base lexical inglesa de la isla de Bioko.},
  number = {7},
  journaltitle = {Oráfrica},
  date = {2011},
  pages = {13--28},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@article{Yakpo2016a,
  langid = {english},
  title = {"{{The}} Only Language We Speak Really Well". {{The English}} Creoles of {{Equatorial Guinea}} and {{West Africa}} at the Intersection of Language Ideologies and Language Policies},
  issn = {0165-2516},
  abstract = {The objective of this paper is to provide an analysis of a hitherto undescribed aspect of the linguistic scenario of Equatorial Guinea with the English Lexifier Creole Pichi (Yakpo 2009, 2010) at the centre of enquiry. The following topics are addressed:  (1) The status of Pichi in the Equato-Guinean polity; special emphasis is placed on the peculiarity of Equatorial Guinea being the only country of Africa in which an English Lexifier Creole coexists with an official language other than English; (2) A comparison of language policies, practices and ideologies vis-à-vis Pichi with those found in other English Creole speaking countries in the sub-region, i.e. Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana and Sierra Leone – the discussion will focus on official responses to these languages in the respective countries. 
A preliminary conclusion is that the “exceptional status” of Equatorial Guinea due to its Spanish colonial past and the use of Spanish is superficial. Approaches to linguistic diversity, the status of African languages vis-à-vis the official language, the configuration of the English Creole in the linguistic scenario all reveal deep similarities with other countries across the sub-region. 
The context to the  enquiry is the following: In Equatorial Guinea as in many other African countries, a complex conglomerate of factors is responsible for the absence of African languages in the official sphere. For many African nations, multiple causes for continuities between colonial and postcolonial language policies have been identified, among them economic factors, cultural dependence on the former colonizer, internalized negative attitudes inherited from colonialism, elitism, and a lack of political vision and administrative expertise (cf. Muthwii \& Kioko 2004; Baldauf \& Kaplan 2007; Bamgbose 2000). In part due to their symbolic link with the convulsions and contradictions of the slave trade and colonialism, the English Creoles are particularly exposed to inherited attitudes about the “unfitness” of autochthonous languages to serve as mediums of communication in high prestige domains beyond the home, the marketplace or use in popular culture. Yet in Equatorial Guinea as in other English Creole speaking countries like Nigeria and Cameroon, the creoles have seen a spectacular expansion as languages of wider communication and home languages in the past decades.
By turning to such contradictions, this paper attempts to tease apart specific and general characteristics of approaches to linguistic diversity in postcolonial Equatorial Guinea and to determine degrees of continuity with language policies and ideologies in the region.},
  number = {239},
  journaltitle = {International Journal of the Sociology of Language},
  series = {Special issue: {Exploring} glottopolitical Dynamics in Africa: the Spanish colonial past and beyond},
  date = {2016},
  pages = {211-233},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Castillo-Rodríguez, Susana and Morgenthaler García, Laura}
}

@book{RepublicadeGuineaEcuatorial2007,
  langid = {spanish},
  author = {{Ley Núm. 5/2.007}},
  abstract = {education bill, Equatorial Guinea},
  publisher = {Ley general de educación, República de Guinea Ecuatorial},
  date = {2007}
}

@unpublished{OloFernandes2012,
  location = {{Barcelona}},
  title = {Apropiación de La Educación En {{Guinea Ecuatorial}} y Lenguas Nacionales},
  date = {2012},
  author = {Olo Fernandes, Lucas},
  note = {Unpublished paper}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2009c,
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Complexity Revisited: {{Pichi}} ({{Equatorial Guinea}}) and {{Spanish}} in Contact},
  isbn = {978-1-903292-15-0},
  abstract = {Recent attempts to prove the simplicity of Creoles with respect to non-Creoles have, like preceding ones concentrated on describing the assumed paucity of selected surfacephenomena in quantitative terms. None of these accounts has taken into consideration that typically, Creoles are languages in contact. In the multilingual speech communities of West Africa but equally so in other regions, Creoles and Pidgins are in contact with lexifier superstrates, with historically unrelated non-lexifier superstrates and with a host of adstrate and substrate languages. This paper attempts to provide answers to two questions. (1) Can we reconcile the complexity of the mixed grammar and lexicon of a language like Pichi withthe notion of simplicity given that code-mixing of the type presented here forms an integral partof the linguistic system of the language? (2) Can we reconcile the restructuring (or “elaboration”in terms of the simplicity hypothesis) of Pichi grammar and lexicon through code-mixing within the short time-span of a hundred and seventy years with the notion that the youth of Creoles makes them simpler than non-Creoles?},
  booktitle = {Simplicity and Complexity in Creoles and Pidgins},
  publisher = {{Battlebridge}},
  date = {2009-07},
  pages = {183--215},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Faraclas, Nicholas G. and Klein, Thomas}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2018,
  location = {{Leiden}},
  title = {¿{{El}} Nacimiento de Una Lengua Afrohispana?: {{La}} Influencia Del Español En El Idioma Criollo Inglés de {{Guinea Ecuatorial}}},
  abstract = {The English Creole Pichi is spoken as a native and vehicular language by most of the population of the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. This chapter looks at the impact of Spanish on the lexicon, grammar and discourse patterns of Pichi speakers of today, by analysing Pichi-Spanish code-switching patterns as well as lexical and structural borrowing from Spanish. Pichi has been deeply influenced by Spanish. This has contributed to the development of distinct characteristics that set Pichi apart from related West African languages like Krio and Nigerian Pidgin. A combination of linguistic and non-linguistic factors proper to the linguistic ecology of Bioko have made Pichi open to hybridization with Spanish. This development is not completed, however, because large parts of the grammar of Pichi have not been transformed by contact with Spanish. Nevertheless, Pichi is, with its partially mixed character, a unique testimony to the Afro-Hispanic heritage of Equatorial Guinea.},
  booktitle = {África y El {{Afro}}-Hispanismo: {{Confluencias}} Trans- e Intra-Continentales En Las Expresiones Culturales Hispánicas y Africanas},
  publisher = {{Brill}},
  date = {2018},
  pages = {243-259},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Odartey-Wellington, Dorothy}
}

@book{Lipski1985,
  location = {{Tübingen}},
  title = {The {{Spanish}} of {{Equatorial Guinea}}: {The} Dialect of {Malabo} and Its Implications for {Spanish} Dialectology},
  number = {Band 209},
  series = {Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie},
  publisher = {{Max Niemeyer Verlag}},
  date = {1985},
  author = {Lipski, John M.}
}

@article{García2016,
  title = {Exploring Glottopolitical Dynamics in {{Africa}}: {The} {{Spanish}} Colonial Past and beyond. {{An}} Introduction},
  number = {239},
  journaltitle = {International Journal of the Sociology of Language},
  date = {2016},
  pages = {1--28},
  author = {Castillo-Rodríguez, Susana and Morgenthaler García, Laura}
}

@article{Lynn1984,
  title = {Commerce, Christianity and the Origins of the `{{Creoles}}' of {{Fernando Po}}},
  volume = {25},
  issn = {0021-8537},
  abstract = {During the early and middle years of the nineteenth century a Creole elite emerged on the island of Fernando Po. The origins of this lay in the fact that for the thirty years after 1827 the island was at the centre of European political and economic interests in the Gulf of Guinea. The short-lived British occupation of Fernando Po, 1827-34, established the town of Clarence and brought to the island a number of settlers, and in particular 'liberated Africans', freed from slave ships captured by the Royal Navy. The situation they faced in Clarence and the treatment they received, not least once the British government withdrew and a succession of British traders attempted to run the town, led to the emergence of a homogeneous society out of the various ethnic groups they comprised. This society was to be transformed by the development of a palm oil trade on the island, particularly during the 1840s. This led to the emergence of a group of middlemen between the Bubi producers of the interior and the European traders who collected oil from Clarence, and concurrently, to the stratification of Clarence society into a trading elite and a group of labourers and servants. This trading elite was attracted to the work of the Baptist Mission in Clarence after 1841, and in particular saw the value of the Mission in giving itself a distinct identity. Over time this elite and the Baptists drew apart, but this was not before the interrelation of social stratification with the work of the Mission had produced a class of Creoles whose descendants - the Fernandinos - still survive as a distinct group in Equatorial Guinea today.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {The Journal of African History},
  shortjournal = {The Journal of African History},
  date = {1984},
  pages = {257-278},
  author = {Lynn, Martin}
}

@phdthesis{BolekiaBoleká2007,
  langid = {spanish},
  school = {{University of Salamanca}},
  title = {La enculturación bubi desde los préstamos léxicos del pidgin-english: procesos de lexicalización progresiva},
  shorttitle = {La enculturación bubi desde los préstamos léxicos del pidgin-english},
  date = {2007},
  author = {Bolekia Boleká, Justo}
}

@article{MorgadesBesari2011,
  entrysubtype = {newspaper},
  location = {{Malabo, Equatorial Guinea}},
  title = {Los Criollos ({{Fernandinos}}-{{Kriös}}) de {{Guinea Ecuatorial}}},
  edition = {No. 162},
  journaltitle = {La Gaceta de Guinea Ecuatorial},
  journalsubtitle = {Misceláneas},
  url = {http://www.lagacetadeguinea.com/162/19.htm},
  urldate = {2013-05-30},
  date = {2011-04},
  author = {Morgades Besari, Trinidad}
}

@book{Alleyne1980,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Ann Arbor}},
  title = {Comparative {{Afro}}-{{American}}: {An} Historical-Comparative Study of {{English}}-Based {{Afro}}-{{American}} Dialects of the {{New World}}},
  isbn = {978-0-89720-031-8},
  shorttitle = {Comparative {{Afro}}-{{American}}},
  publisher = {{Karoma Publishers}},
  date = {1980},
  author = {Alleyne, Mervyn C.}
}

@incollection{Hancock1986,
  title = {The Domestic Hypothesis, Diffusion and Componentiality: An Account of {{Atlantic Anglophone}} Creole Origins},
  booktitle = {Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis},
  address = {Amsterdam},
  publisher = {John Benjamins},
  date = {1986},
  pages = {71--102},
  author = {Hancock, Ian F.},
  editor = {Muysken, Pieter and Smith, Norval}
}

@incollection{Hancock1987,
  title = {A Preliminary Classification of {{Anglophone Atlantic}} Creoles, with Syntactic Data from Thirty-Three Representative Dialects},
  booktitle = {Pidgin and Creole Languages: {Essays} in Memory of {{John Reinecke}}},
  address = {Honolulu},
  publisher = {University of Hawai'i Press},
  date = {1987},
  pages = {264--333},
  author = {Hancock, Ian F.},
  editor = {Gilbert, Glenn G.}
}

@article{MuyskenSmith1990,
  title = {Question Words in Pidgin and Creole Languages},
  volume = {28},
  abstract = {http://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/14635/1/14635.pdf},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Linguistics},
  date = {1990},
  pages = {883-903},
  author = {Muysken, Pieter and Smith, Norval}
}

@incollection{Baker1999,
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Investigating the Origin and Diffusion of Shared Features among the {{Atlantic English Creoles}}},
  isbn = {978-1-85919-088-3},
  booktitle = {St. {{Kitts}} and the {{Atlantic Creoles}}: {{T}}he Texts of {{Samuel Augustus Mathews}} in Perspective},
  publisher = {{University of Westminster Press}},
  date = {1999},
  pages = {315--364},
  author = {Baker, Philip},
  editor = {Baker, Philip and Bruyn, Adrienne}
}

@incollection{Faraclas2004,
  location = {{Berlin}},
  title = {Nigerian {{Pidgin English}}: {{Morphology}} and Syntax},
  booktitle = {A Handbook of Varieties of {{English}}, {{Vol}} 2: {{Morphology}} and Syntax},
  publisher = {{Mouton de Gruyter}},
  date = {2004},
  pages = {828--853},
  author = {Faraclas, Nicholas},
  editor = {Kortmann, Bernd and Schneider, Edgar W. and Burridge, Kate and Mesthrie, Rajend and Upton, Clive}
}

@article{Yakpo2016beeee,
  title = {O Estatuto Do Pichi Na {{Guiné Equatorial}}},
  volume = {3},
  issn = {2311-6625},
  abstract = {Este artigo explora a relação entre as políticas e as ideologias linguísticas relacionadas ao pichi, o crioulo de base lexical inglesa da Guiné Equatorial e a segunda língua nacional mais amplamente falada do país. Forneço explicações para a ausência de compromisso do Estado com o pichi, assim como a omissão do mesmo nos discursos públicos. Sugiro que as ideologias linguísticas que circundam o pichi estabelecem, em grande medida, valores negativos sobre a língua e têm contribuído para inibir as oportunidades de elevação de seu status e expansão de seu uso na Guiné Equatorial. Concluo que o pichi continuará, portanto, a ampliar suas funções sociais informalmente, pela conquista gradual de domínios adicionais de uso.},
  number = {6},
  journaltitle = {PLATÔ (Revista Digital do Instituto Internacional da Língua Portuguesa)},
  series = {Glotopolítica na Guiné Equatorial},
  date = {2016},
  pages = {20-40},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@article{Yakpo2016estatuto,
	title = {O estatuto do pichi na {Guiné} {Equatorial}},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2311-6625},
	url = {http://www.riilp.org}, 
	number = {6},
	journal = {PLATÔ (Revista Digital do Instituto Internacional da Língua Portuguesa)},
	author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {20--40}
}


@article{HuberGörlach1996,
  langid = {english},
  title = {West {{African Pidgin English}}},
  volume = {17},
  issn = {0172-8865},
  abstract = {The classification of West African languages as English, broken English, pidgin, or broken pidgin is problematic. It is argued that standard pidgins may be determined by the competence of educated, fluent speakers, at least as a reference point. Text types from a Nigerian newspaper demonstrating broken pidgin are discussed, \& the playfulness apparent in the use of pidgin, contrasts between "quasi-pidgin" \& "standard pidgin," \& the sociolinguistic position of pidgin are considered. Ghanaian Pidgin English magazine \& newspaper articles illustrating the influence of Standard Ghanaian English on pure pidgin are provided, with each article presented in its original state, a proper Pidgin version, \& an English translation. 8 References. D. Weibel},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {English World-Wide},
  date = {1996},
  pages = {239-258},
  author = {Huber, Magnus and Görlach, Manfred}
}

@article{BakerHuber2001,
  title = {Atlantic, {{Pacific}}, and World-Wide Features in {{English}}-Lexicon Contact Languages},
  volume = {22},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {English World-Wide},
  date = {2001},
  pages = {157--208},
  author = {Baker, Philip and Huber, Magnus}
}

@article{Singler1997,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The Configuration of {{Liberia}}'s {{Englishes}}},
  volume = {16},
  issn = {0883-2919, 1467-971X},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {World Englishes},
  date = {1997},
  pages = {205-231},
  author = {Singler, John Victor}
}

@phdthesis{Smith1987,
  title = {The Genesis of the {{Creole}} Languages of {{Surinam}}},
  school={{University of Amsterdam}},
  date = {1987},
  author = {Smith, Norval}
}

@incollection{Smith2015,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Berlin}},
  title = {Ingredient {{X}}: {The} Shared {{African}} Lexical Element in the {{English}}-Lexifier {{Atlantic Creoles}}, and the Theory of Rapid Creolization},
  isbn = {978-3-11-034397-7},
  abstract = {Spatial relations in Sranan are expressed through a broad range of constructions. Some of these reflect the influence of the Dutch superstrate, others clearly reflect the influence of the substrate languages of Sranan. These “Niger-Congo” structures are markedly different from equivalent “Indo-European” ones. Pattern relexification is  held responsible for  the wholesale carry-over of substrate semantics plus morpho-syntactic specifications into Sranan locative constructions. The synchronic variation in Sranan is partially explained by the equally broad variety of constructions found within and across the African languages and language families that participated in the creation of Sranan. However, much of the apparent diversity is superficial in nature, for it chiefly concerns constituent order. In contrast, morphosyntactic features like the nature of dependency, as well as the semantic structure of spatial descriptions remain highly similar in Sranan and the substrates.},
  number = {275},
  booktitle = {Surviving the {{Middle Passage}}: {{The West Africa}}-{{Surinam Sprachbund}}},
  series = {Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs (TiLSM)},
  publisher = {{De Gruyter Mouton}},
  date = {2015},
  pages = {67-106},
  author = {Smith, Norval},
  editor = {Muysken, Pieter and Smith, Norval}
}

@book{Dillard1973,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{New York}},
  title = {Black {{English}}: {Its} History and Usage in the {{United States}}},
  isbn = {978-0-394-71872-9},
  shorttitle = {Black {{English}}},
  abstract = {An investigation of the ways in which Black English differs from other varieties of American English, arguing that the differences are traceable to language-contact phenomena associated with the West African slave trade and with European maritime expansion, and discussing its effect on the education of African-American children.},
  publisher = {{Vintage Books}},
  date = {1973},
  author = {Dillard, John L.}
}

@book{Rickford1999,
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {African {{American}} Vernacular {{English}}: {{Features}}, Evolution, Educational Implications},
  shorttitle = {African {{American}} Vernacular {{English}}},
  publisher = {{Wiley-Blackwell}},
  date = {1999},
  author = {Rickford, John R.}
}

@incollection{Winford2017,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Some Observations on the Sources of {{AAVE}} Structure: {{Re}}-Examining the Creole Connection},
  isbn = {978-90-272-5277-7},
  shorttitle = {Some Observations on the Sources of {{AAVE}} Structure},
  number = {53},
  booktitle = {Language {{Contact}} in {{Africa}} and the {{African Diaspora}} in the {{Americas}}},
  series = {Creole Language Library},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2017},
  pages = {203-224},
  author = {Winford, Donald},
  editor = {Cutler, Cecelia and Vrzić, Zvjezdana and Angermeyer, Philipp}
}

@unpublished{Smith2001,
  title = {Reconstructing {{Caribbean}} Plantation {{Pidgin English}}},
  type = {Unpublished paper},
  howpublished = {Unpublished paper},
  date = {2001},
  author = {Smith, Norval}
}

@unpublished{Dandeson2001,
  title = {The Use of Preverbal Particles in {{Sierra Leone Krio}}},
  type = {Unpublished paper},
  howpublished = {Unpublished paper},
  date = {2001},
  author = {Smith, Dandeson}
}

@incollection{YillahCorcoran2007,
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Krio ({{Creole English}})},
  booktitle = {Comparative Creole Syntax: {{Parallel}} Outlines of 18 Creole Grammars},
  publisher = {{Battlebridge Publications}},
  date = {2007},
  author = {Yillah, Mohamed Sorie and Corcoran, Chris},
  editor = {Holm, John and Patrick, Peter L.}
}

@incollection{Finney2004,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Tone Assignment on Lexical Items of {English} and {African} Origin in {{Krio}}},
  abstract = {The nature of tone marking on words of English origin in English- based creoles is a highly debated issue. In creoles defined by some as pitch-accent languages, high tones in words that are derived from stress (accent) languages generally coincide with primary stress. I adopt herein the position that Krio is a tonal language, rather than a pitch-accent language. Tone is generally specified in the lexicon, particularly for lexical items of African origin. Tone assignment on disyllabic lexical items of English origin is unpredictable, albeit predictable in a limited set of polysyllabic lexical items: In this case, high tone generally orresponds with the primary or secondary stress that is closest to the end of the word. Finally, I propose a tonal rule of high tone deletion and spreading of low tone on the initial components of compounds of English origin.},
  booktitle = {Creoles, Contact and Language Change: Linguistics and Social Implications},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2004},
  pages = {221 -- 236},
  author = {Finney, Malcolm Awadajin},
  editor = {Escure, Geneviève and Schwegler, Armin}
}

@inproceedings{MorgadesBesari2005,
  location = {{Rosario, Argentina}},
  title = {Breve Apunte Sobre El Español En {{Guinea Ecuatorial}}},
  url = {http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_05/morgades/p01.htm},
  eventtitle = {{{III Congreso Internacional}} de La {{Lengua Española}}},
  booktitle = {El Español En El Mundo: Anuario 2005},
  publisher = {{Instituto Cervantes}},
  urldate = {2018-02-20},
  date = {2005},
  author = {Morgades Besari, Trinidad}
}

@book{MartindelMolino1993,
  location = {{Malabo}},
  title = {La Ciudad de {{Clarence}}},
  publisher = {{Ediciones Centro Cultural Hispano-Guineano}},
  date = {1993},
  author = {Martín del Molino, Amador}
}

@book{Cantús2006,
  location = {{Barcelona}},
  title = {Fernando {{Poo}}: Una Aventura Colonial Española. {{Vol I}}: {{Las}} Islas En Litigio: Entre La Esclavitud y El Abolicionismo, 1777-1846},
  shorttitle = {Fernando {{Poo}}},
  publisher = {{Ceiba Ediciones}},
  date = {2006},
  author = {Cantús, Dolores García}
}

@book{FyleJones1980,
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {A {{Krio}}-{{English Dictionary}}},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {1980},
  author = {Fyle, Clifford N. and Jones, Eldred Durosimi}
}

@incollection{Coomber1992,
  location = {{Uppsala}},
  title = {The New {{Krio}} Orthography and Some Unresolved Problems},
  booktitle = {Reading and Writing {{Krio}}},
  publisher = {{Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis}},
  date = {1992},
  pages = {15-20},
  author = {Coomber, Ajayi},
  editor = {Jones, Eldred D. and Sandred, Karl I. and Shrimpton, Neville}
}

@book{InternationalAfricanInstitute1930,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {Practical {{Orthography}} of {{African Languages}}},
  shorttitle = {Practical {{Orthography}} of {{African Languages}}},
  abstract = {The first edition of the Practical Orthography of African Languages was a best-seller and this and the following volume re-issues the second edition, in English and French. Originally published in 1930, it provided an invaluable solution to the problem of finding a practical and uniform method of writing African languages. The volume is bound with a small pamphlet which analyses the information on the Semitic and cushitic languages of Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Related languages are grouped together into larger sections which have some linguistic significance. A further pamphlet, the Distribution of the Nilotic and Nilo-Hamitic Languages of Africa, describes the relationship between languages and dialects. For each language, data are given on locality, number of speakers, use for educational and religious purposes and the extent of vernacular literature. The linguistic material is set out in phonetic script with tone marks, though reference is made to current standard orthoraphies where these exist.},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {1930},
  author = {{International African Institute}},
  eprinttype = {googlebooks}
}

@phdthesis{Yakpo2009a,
  langid = {english},
  title = {A Grammar of {{Pichi}}},
  url = {http://hdl.handle.net/2066/79407},
  abstract = {Pichi (formerly known as Fernando Po Creole English) is an Atlantic English-lexicon Creole spoken on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. With at least 70,000 speakers, Pichi is an offshoot of Krio (Sierra Leone) and shares many characteristics with its West African sister languages Aku (Gambia) and Nigerian, Cameroonian and Ghanaian Pidgin. At the same time, contact with Spanish, the colonial and official language of Equatorial Guinea, has made a significant impact on the lexicon and grammar of Pichi. 

This first comprehensive description of Pichi is based on extensive fieldwork in Equatorial Guinea. It presents a detailed analysis of the phonology, morphology and syntax of the language and addresses language contact between Pichi and Spanish. The annexes contain a collection of interlinearised and annotated texts as well as Pichi-English-Pichi vocabulary lists.},
  school ={Radboud University Nijmegen},
  urldate = {2018-03-02},
  date = {2009},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@book{Yakpo2010,
  langid = {spanish},
  location = {{Barcelona}},
  title = {Gramática del Pichi},
  isbn = {978-84-937497-4-3},
  number = {13},
  series = {Laboratorio de recursos orales},
  publisher = {{Ceiba Ediciones}},
  date = {2010},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@collection{MichaelisEtAl2013,
  location = {{Leipzig}},
  title = {{{APiCS Online}}},
  url = {http://apics-online.info/},
  publisher = {{Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology}},
  date = {2013},
  editor = {Michaelis, Susanne Maria and Maurer, Philippe and Haspelmath, Martin and Huber, Magnus}
}

@inproceedings{Yakpo2009b,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Port of Spain}},
  title = {Tone in {{Pichi}}},
  abstract = {Pichi, the English-lexifier Creole of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) features a mixed prosodic system similar to the ones identified for other Atlantic Creoles. The language exhibits a stratified lexicon with a majority of roots characterised by pitch accent and a minority characterised by tone.},
  eventtitle = {17th Biennial Conference of the {{Society}} for {{Caribbean Linguistics}}, {{Cayenne}}, {{French Guiana}}, 23-31 {{July}} 2008},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 17th Biennial Conference of the {{Society}} for {{Caribbean Linguistics}}},
  publisher = {{University of the West Indies at St. Augustine, Trinidad \& Tobago}},
  date = {2009},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@article{Rountree1972,
  title = {Saramaccan Tone in Relation to Intonation and Grammar},
  volume = {29},
  journaltitle = {Lingua},
  date = {1972},
  pages = {308--325},
  author = {Rountree, S. Catherine}
}

@book{Devonish1989,
  location = {{Kingston}},
  title = {Talking in Tones: {{A}} Study of Tone in {{Afro}}-{{European Creole}} Languages},
  publisher = {{Caribbean Academic Publications}},
  date = {1989},
  author = {Devonish, Hubert}
}

@book{Devonish2002,
  location = {{Kingston}},
  title = {Talking Rhythm Stressing Tone: {The} Role of Prominence in {{Anglo}}-{{West African Creole}} Languages},
  isbn = {978-976-8189-25-7},
  number = {5},
  series = {Caribbean Language series},
  publisher = {{Arawak Publications}},
  date = {2002},
  author = {Devonish, Hubert}
}

@article{Good2004,
  title = {Tone and Accent in {{Saramaccan}}: {{Charting}} a Deep Split in the Phonology of a Language},
  number = {114},
  journaltitle = {Lingua},
  date = {2004},
  pages = {575--619},
  author = {Good, Jeffrey C.}
}

@article{Castillo1998,
  title = {Tone and Stress in {{Papiamentu}}: {The} Contribution of a Constraint-Based Analysis to the Problem of Creole Genesis},
  volume = {13},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages},
  date = {1998},
  pages = {297--334},
  author = {Rivera Castillo, Yolanda}
}

@article{CastilloFaraclas2006,
  title = {The Emergence of Systems of Lexical and Grammatical Tone and Stress in {{Caribbean}} and {{West African Creoles}}},
  number = {59},
  journaltitle = {Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {148-169},
  author = {Rivera Castillo, Yolanda and Faraclas, Nicholas}
}

@article{SteienYakpo2017,
  title = {Romancing with Tone: {On} the Outcomes of Prosodic Contact},
  abstract = {The idea is common that tone is lost or reduced during language contact, and during contact between tone and intonation-only (i.e. “stress”) languages in particular. The assumption is that tone is complex and therefore does not survive universal processes of simplification seen to accompany the formation of contact varieties. We instead propose a dynamic model for the evolution of contact prosodic systems, making two central claims. First, contact varieties develop lexical tone or stress in accordance with the dominant type in their ecologies via areal convergence. Drawing on primary data from Central African French (CAF) and Equatoguinean Spanish (EGS), and supporting evidence from other contact varieties, we show that tone systems can easily be transferred from tonal adstrates and substrates to intonation-only languages. Secondly, the outcomes of prosodic contact will reflect the possibilities and limitations of stress-to-tone mapping, the typological matching of intonation-only and tonal features specific to the languages involved.},
  date = {2018},
  author = {{Bordal Steien}, Guri and Yakpo, Kofi},
  note = {Manuscript}
}

@incollection{Lipski2015,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {“{{Toned}}-up” {{Spanish}}: {{Stress}} → Pitch → Tone(?) In {{Equatorial Guinea}}},
  isbn = {978-90-272-0389-2},
  shorttitle = {“{{Toned}}-up” {{Spanish}}},
  booktitle = {Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2015},
  pages = {233-256},
  author = {Lipski, John M.},
  editor = {Tortora, Christina and Dikken, Marcel and Montoya, Ignacio L. and O'Neill, Teresa}
}

@article{Criper1971,
  title = {A Classification of Types of {{English}} in {{Ghana}}},
  volume = {10},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Journal of African Languages},
  date = {1971},
  pages = {6--17},
  author = {Criper, Lindsay}
}

@article{Criper-Friedman1990,
  title = {The Tone System of {{West African}} Coastal {{English}}},
  volume = {9},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {World Englishes},
  date = {1990},
  pages = {63--77},
  author = {Criper-Friedman, Lindsay}
}

@inproceedings{GussenhovenUdofot2010,
  location = {{Chicago, USA}},
  title = {Word Melodies vs. Pitch Accents: {{A}} Perceptual Evaluation of Terracing Contours in {{British}} and {{Nigerian English}}},
  abstract = {The results of a perception experiment in which Nigerian English listeners judged the well-formedness of Nigerian English intonation contours suggests that the language has tonal specifications for each syllable, including syllables that are unstressed in British English. The association of pitch accents to accented syllables in British English explains why British English listeners are relatively insensitive to deviations in the pitch of unstressed or unaccented syllables.},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of {{Speech Prosody}} 2010},
  date = {2010},
  author = {Gussenhoven, Carlos and Udofot, Inyang}
}

@incollection{Steien2015,
  location = {{Heidelberg}},
  title = {Traces of the Lexical Tone System of {{Sango}} in {{Central African French}}},
  booktitle = {Prosody and Language in Contact},
  publisher = {{Springer}},
  date = {2015},
  pages = {29--49},
  author = {{Bordal Steien}, Guri},
  editor = {Delais-Roussarie, Elisabeth and Avanzi, Mathieu and Herment, Sophie }
}

@book{Faraclas1996,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Nigerian {{Pidgin}}},
  isbn = {978-0-415-02291-0},
  abstract = {Nigerian Pidginis the first comprehensive grammar of what has become one of the most widely spoken languages of Africa and the most widely spoken pidgin language in the world. The work consists of a detailed descriptive and analytic treatment of the syntax, morphology and phonology of Nigerian Pidgin, as well as preliminary studies of the lexicon and semantics of the language. The data and analysis presented in this book are based on samples of spontaneous speech collected in markets, workplaces, private homes and other sites throughout South Eastern Nigeria. This volume is further complemented by a full bibliography.},
  publisher = {{Routledge}},
  date = {1996},
  author = {Faraclas, Nicholas G.}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2012a,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Reiteration in {{Pichi}}: {{Forms}}, Functions and Areal-Typological Perspectives},
  isbn = {978 90 272 5266 1},
  shorttitle = {Reiteration in {{Pichi}}},
  abstract = {Pichi, an Afro-Caribbean English-lexifier Creole spoken on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, features four types of reiteration. Amongst them, reduplication and repetition can be distinguished on formal and semantic grounds. Reduplication is a derivational operation consisting of self-compounding and tone deletion. It is restricted to dynamic verbs and yields iterative, dispersive and attenuative meanings. Repetition occurs with all major word classes, renders more iconic meanings and is analyzed as semi-morphological in nature. A comparison with verbal reiteration in a cross-section of West African languages and two of its sister languages in the Caribbean allows the conclusion that Pichi reduplication reflects an areal pattern. I conclude further that Pichi reduplication is not exceptionally iconic nor specifically “creole” in nature.},
  number = {43},
  booktitle = {The Morphosyntax of Reiteration in Creole and Non-Creole Languages},
  series = {Creole Language Library (CLL)},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2012},
  pages = {251-284},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Aboh, Enoch A. and Zribi-Hertz, Anne}
}

@book{Yip2002,
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {Tone},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {2002},
  author = {Yip, Moira}
}

@phdthesis{Suzuki1998,
  school = {{University of Arizona}},
  title = {A Typological Investigation of Dissimilation},
  abstract = {This dissertation investigates the phenomenon of dissimilation from a theoretical perspective, with special attention to crosslinguistic patterns. After first arguing that the previous accounts based on the Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) (Leben 1973, McCarthy 1979, 1986) are not satisfactory, I propose an alternative theory of identity avoidance, GENERALIZED OCP (GOCP) which generalizes the applicability of the traditional OCP to a wider range of phenomena, not just autosegmental (i.e. featural) ones. My proposal asserts that identity avoidance between two elements in sequence is fundamental to linguistic theory, an idea that can be characterized by a universal constraint governing various types of dissimilatory phenomena. This concept is implemented within the framework of Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky 1993, McCarthy and Prince 1993a,b), which provides the flexibility for constraints to be both violable and rankable. Contrary to the traditional OCP based approach which is bound by various representational properties such as feature geometry and underspecification, the proposed approach abandons this representational dependency in favor of the richly articulated constraint-based system.},
  date = {1998},
  author = {Suzuki, Keiichiro}
}

@phdthesis{Pierrehumbert1980,
  title = {The Phonology and Phonetics of {{English}} Intonation},
  institution = {{Massachusetts Institute of Technology}},
  date = {1980},
  author = {Pierrehumbert, Janet Breckenridge}
}

@book{Cristo1998,
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {Intonation Systems: {A} Survey of Twenty Languages},
  shorttitle = {Intonation Systems},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {1998},
  author = {Hirst, Daniel and Di Cristo, Albert}
}

@incollection{Farquharson2007,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Creole Morphology Revisited},
  booktitle = {Deconstructing Creole},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2007},
  pages = {21-38},
  author = {Farquharson, Joseph},
  editor = {Ansaldo, Umberto and Matthews, Stephen and Lim, Lisa}
}

@incollection{ComrieThompson1985,
  title = {Grammatical Categories and the Lexicon},
  booktitle = {Language Typology and Syntactic Description, {{Vol}}. 3: {{Grammatical}} Categories and the Lexicon},
  address = {Cambridge},
  publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
  date = {1985},
  pages = {349--398},
  author = {Comrie, Bernard and Thompson, Sandra A.},
  editor = {Shopen, Timothy}
}

@book{ClaudiHünnemeyer1991,
  location = {{Chicago and London}},
  title = {Grammaticalization: {{A}} Conceptual Framework},
  publisher = {{Chicago University Press}},
  date = {1991},
  author = {Heine, Bernd and Claudi, Ulrike and Hünnemeyer, Friederike}
}

@inproceedings{Downing2001,
  location = {Germany},
  publisher = {{Bielefeld University}},
  title = {Tone (Non-)Transfer in {{Bantu}} Verbal Reduplication},
  eventtitle = {International {{Workshop}} on the {{Typology}} of {{African Prosodic Systems}}},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the {{International Workshop}} on the {{Typology}} of {{African Prosodic Systems}}},
  date = {2001},
  author = {Downing, Laura J.}
}

@article{Odden1996,
  title = {Patterns of Reduplication in {{Kikerewe}}},
  abstract = {The principles governing reduplication have recently been subject to renewed scrutiny within Optimality Theory under the impetus of McCarthy \& Prince 1995. Bantu languages have provided a rich empirical domain for investigation in this area (Odden \& Odden 1985, 1996; Kiyomi \& Davis 1992; Mutaka \& Hyman 1990 and Downing 1994, 1996, inter alii), 
since reduplication in Bantu languages often interacts in sometimes unexpected ways with other aspects of the phonology.},
  number = {48},
  journaltitle = {OSU WPL},
  date = {1996},
  pages = {111-148},
  author = {Odden, David}
}

@article{Mufwene1986,
  title = {Number Delimitation in {{Gullah}}},
  volume = {61},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {American Speech},
  date = {1986},
  pages = {33--60},
  author = {Mufwene, Salikoko S.}
}

@book{Kouwenberg1994,
  title = {Berbice {{Dutch Creole}}},
  isbn = {978-3-11-013736-1},
  number = {12},
  series = {Mouton Grammar Library},
  address = {Berlin},
  publisher = {Mouton de Gruyter},
  date = {1994},
  author = {Kouwenberg, S.}
}

@article{Haspelmath1994,
  title = {Implicational Universals in the Distribution of Indefinite Pronouns},
  volume = {47},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {STUF-Language Typology and Universals},
  date = {1994},
  pages = {160--185},
  author = {Haspelmath, Martin}
}

@book{Haspelmath1997,
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {Indefinite Pronouns},
  series = {Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {1997},
  author = {Haspelmath, Martin}
}

@incollection{Sasse1991a,
  title = {Aspect and Aktionsart: {A} Reconciliation},
  volume = {6},
  booktitle = {Belgian {{Journal}} of {{Linguistics}}},
  date = {1991},
  pages = {31--45},
  author = {Sasse, Hans-Jürgen}
}

@book{Comrie1976,
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {Aspect},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {1976},
  author = {Comrie, Bernard}
}

@book{Winford1993,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Predication in {{Caribbean English Creoles}}},
  isbn = {978-90-272-5231-9},
  number = {10},
  series = {Creole Language Library (CLL)},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1993},
  author = {Winford, Donald}
}

@incollection{Migge2000,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {The Origin of the Syntax and the Semantics of Property Items in the {{Surinamese}} Plantation {{Creole}}},
  number = {21},
  booktitle = {Language Change and Language Contact in {{Pidgins}} and {{Creoles}}},
  series = {Creole Language Library (CLL)},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2000},
  pages = {201-231},
  author = {Migge, Bettina},
  editor = {McWhorter, John}
}

@incollection{ChungTimberlake1985,
  title = {Tense, Aspect, and Mood},
  booktitle = {Language Typology and Syntactic Description. {{Vol}}. 1: {{Grammatical}} Categories and the Lexicon},
  address = {Cambridge},
  publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
  date = {1985},
  pages = {202-258},
  author = {Chung, Sandra and Timberlake, Alan},
  editor = {Shopen, Timothy}
}

@book{Dahl1985,
  title = {Tense and Aspect Systems},
  address = {London},
  publisher = {Basil Blackwell},
  date = {1985},
  author = {Dahl, Östen}
}

@incollection{Breu1985,
  location = {{München}},
  title = {Handlungsgrenzen Als {{Grundlage}} Der {{Verbklassifikation}}},
  booktitle = {Slavistische {{Linguistik}} 1984},
  publisher = {{Otto Sagner}},
  date = {1985},
  pages = {9--34},
  author = {Breu, Walter},
  editor = {Lehfeldt, Werner}
}

@incollection{Sasse1991,
  location = {{Köln}},
  title = {Aspekttheorie},
  number = {14},
  booktitle = {Aspektsysteme},
  series = {Arbeitspapiere},
  publisher = {{Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität zu Köln}},
  date = {1991},
  pages = {1--35},
  author = {Sasse, Hans-Jürgen},
  editor = {Sasse, Hans-Jürgen}
}

@incollection{Sasse1991b,
	address = {Köln},
	series = {Arbeitspapiere},
	title = {Aspekttheorie},
	number = {14},
	booktitle = {Aspektsysteme},
	publisher = {Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität zu Köln},
	author = {Sasse, Hans-Jürgen},
	editor = {Sasse, Hans-Jürgen},
	year = {1991},
	pages = {1--35}
}

@incollection{Jaggar2006,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{London}},
  title = {The {{Hausa}} Perfective Tense-Aspect Used in Wh-/Focus Constructions and Historical Narratives: {A} Unified Account},
  shorttitle = {The {{Hausa}} Perfective Tense-Aspect Used in Wh-/Focus Constructions and Historical Narratives},
  abstract = {In this paper I revisit and elaborate some of the ideas I outlined in the earlier paper, concentrating on the semantic characteristics of the paired Perfective tense-aspects in a major (universal) discourse context—spontaneously-produced past-time narrative. The main focus is on the role of the paradigm known traditionally (and unfortunately) as the “Relative Perfective”, a set which is in partial complementary distribution with the “General/Neutral Perfective”. This specially inflected tense-aspect form is the one exploited at discourse-level to assert prominent events on the time-axis in foregrounded narrative sequences, but it is also required in classic clause-level wh-constructions, i.e., wh-interrogatives, declarative focus constructions, and relative clauses, operations which often share structural properties across languages. The central claim is that the fronted focus/wh- constructions and pivotal foregrounded portions of past-time narratives utilize the same specialized Perfective tense-aspect morphology because they achieve the same discourse-pragmatic goals—they all supply the most communicatively PROMINENT and focal NEW information.},
  booktitle = {West {African} Linguistics: {Descriptive}, Comparative, and Historical Studies in Honor of {{Russell G}}. {{Schuh}}},
  publisher = {{J.M. Dent \& Co}},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {100-133},
  author = {Jaggar, Philip J.},
  editor = {Hyman, Larry M. and Newman, Paul}
}

@article{Heine1994,
  title = {On the Genesis of Aspect in {{African}} Languages: {The} Proximative},
  journaltitle = {Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society},
  date = {1994},
  pages = {35--46},
  author = {Heine, Bernd}
}

@book{Palmer2001,
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {Mood and Modality},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {2001},
  author = {Palmer, Frank Robert}
}

@book{Nkengasong2016,
  location = {{Newcastle upon Tyne}},
  title = {A Grammar of {{Cameroonian Pidgin}}},
  isbn = {978-1-4438-8599-7},
  abstract = {This volume represents a comprehensive description of the structure of Cameroonian Pidgin, including an overview of its socio-cultural context, writing system, sounds, word formation, word classes and sentence structures. It comprises a corpus of 540 Cameroonian Pidgin proverbs and a rich glossary of over 1000 words and expressions typical of Cameroonian Pidgin which are helpful in understanding the characteristic features of the language, as well as the cultural, the social, and the philosophical contexts of the Cameroonian Pidgin speaker. Written with the first-hand experience of a “native speaker”, it will be of interest to ordinary users, as well as students, researchers and professional linguists interested in the way the language functions. Indeed, it represents a useful resource for anyone wishing to learn or know about Pidgin, especially tourists and professionals traveling to West and Central Africa.},
  publisher = {{Cambridge Scholars Publishing}},
  date = {2016-01-02},
  author = {Nkengasong, Nkemngong}
}

@incollection{Essegbey2008,
  title = {The Potential Morpheme in {{Ewe}}},
  booktitle = {Aspect and Modality in {{Kwa}} Languages},
  address = {Amsterdam},
  publisher = {John Benjamins},
  date = {2008},
  pages = {195-214},
  author = {Essegbey, James},
  editor = {Ameka, Felix K. and Kropp Dakubu, Mary Esther}
}

@incollection{Hopper1982,
  title = {Aspect between Discourse and Grammar: {An} Introductory Essay for the Volume},
  number = {1},
  booktitle = {Tense-Aspect: {Between} Semantics and Pragmatics},
  series = {Typological Studies in Language},
  address = {Amsterdam},
  publisher = {John Benjamins},
  date = {1982},
  pages = {3--18},
  author = {Hopper, Paul J.},
  editor = {Hopper, Paul J.}
}

@article{HopperThompson1980,
  title = {Transitivity in Grammar and Discourse},
  volume = {56},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Language},
  date = {1980},
  pages = {251--299},
  author = {Hopper, Paul J. and Thompson, Sandra A.}
}

@book{Longacre1996,
  title = {The Grammar of Discourse},
  publisher = { Plenum Press},
  address = {New York and London},
  date = {1996},
  author = {Longacre, Robert E.}
}

@article{YoussefJames1999,
  title = {Grounding via Tense–aspect in {{Tobagonian Creole}}: {Discourse} Strategies across a Creole Continuum},
  volume = {37},
  shorttitle = {Grounding via Tense–aspect in {{Tobagonian Creole}}},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Linguistics},
  date = {1999},
  pages = {597--624},
  author = {Youssef, Valerie and James, Winford}
}

@book{Labov1972,
  location = {{Philadelphia}},
  title = {Language in the Inner City: {Studies} in the {{Black English}} Vernacular},
  shorttitle = {Language in the Inner City},
  publisher = {{University of Pennsylvania Press}},
  date = {1972},
  author = {Labov, William}
}

@incollection{Winford2000,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Tense and Aspect in {{Sranan}} and the Creole Prototype},
  number = {21},
  booktitle = {Language Change and Language Contact in {{Pidgins}} and {{Creoles}}},
  series = {Creole Language Library (CLL)},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2000},
  pages = {383--442},
  author = {Winford, Donald},
  editor = {McWhorter, John}
}

@article{Pollard1989,
  title = {The Particle \textit{En} in {{Jamaican Creole}}: {A} Discourse-Related Account},
  volume = {10},
  shorttitle = {The Particle En in {{Jamaican Creole}}},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {English World-Wide},
  date = {1989},
  pages = {55--68},
  author = {Pollard, Velma}
}

@incollection{Anderson1982,
  title = {The ``Perfect" as a Universal and as a Language-Specific Category},
  number = {1},
  booktitle = {Tense-Aspect: {Between} Semantics and Pragmatics},
  series = {Typological Studies in Language},
  address = {Amsterdam},
  publisher = { John Benjamins},
  date = {1982},
  pages = {227--264},
  author = {Anderson, Lloyd B.},
  editor = {Hopper, Paul J.}
}

@incollection{Li1982,
  title = {The Discourse Motivation for the Perfect Aspect: {The} {{Mandarin}} Particle \textit{Le}},
  number = {1},
  booktitle = {Tense-Aspect: {Between} Semantics and Pragmatics},
  series = {Typological Studies in Language},
  address = {Amsterdam},
  publisher = {John Benjamins},
  date = {1982},
  pages = {19--44},
  author = {Li, Charles N. and Thompson, Sandra A. and Thompson, R. McMillan},
  editor = {Hopper, Paul J.}
}

@incollection{Slobin1994,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Discourse Origins of the Present Perfect},
  isbn = {978-90-272-3612-8},
  number = {109},
  booktitle = {Perspectives on Grammaticalization},
  series = {Current Issues in Linguistic Theory},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1994},
  pages = {119-133},
  author = {Slobin, Dan I.},
  editor = {Pagliuca, William}
}

@book{Stassen1985,
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {Comparison and Universal Grammar},
  publisher = {{Basil Blackwell}},
  date = {1985},
  author = {Stassen, Leon}
}

@book{BlankerDubbeldam2010,
  location = {{Houten}},
  title = {Prisma Woordenboek {{Sranantongo}}: {{Sranantongo}}-{{Nederlands}}, {{Nederlands}}-{{Sranantongo}}},
  shorttitle = {Prisma Woordenboek {{Sranantongo}}},
  publisher = {{Prisma Woordenboeken en Taaluitgaven}},
  date = {2010},
  author = {Blanker, J. C. M. and Dubbeldam, Jaap}
}

@book{Miestamo2005,
  title = {Standard Negation: {The} Negation of Declarative Verbal Main Clauses in a Typological Perspective},
  publisher = {{Walter de Gruyter}},
  location = {Berlin},
  date = {2005},
  author = {Miestamo, Matti}
}

@incollection{Jungraithmayr1988,
  langid = {german},
  location = {{München}},
  title = {Zur Negation in afrikanischen Sprachen},
  booktitle = {Studia Indogermanica et Slavica, Festgabe für Werner Thomas zum 65. Geburtstag},
  series = {Specimina Philologiae Slavicae},
  publisher = {{Sager}},
  date = {1988},
  pages = {485-496},
  author = {Jungraithmayr, Herrmann},
  editor = {Peter, Kosta}
}

@article{Drubig2003,
  title = {Toward a Typology of Focus and Focus Constructions},
  volume = {41},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Linguistics},
  date = {2003},
  pages = {1--50},
  author = {Drubig, Hans Bernhard}
}

@incollection{Chafe1976,
  location = {{New York}},
  title = {Givenness, Contrastiveness, Definiteness, Subjects, Topics, and Point of View},
  booktitle = {Subject and Topic},
  publisher = {{Academic Press}},
  date = {1976},
  pages = {25-55},
  author = {Chafe, Wallace L.},
  editor = {Li, Charles N.}
}

@book{HeineKuteva2002,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {World {{Lexicon}} of Grammaticalization},
  isbn = {978-0-521-80339-7},
  abstract = {"While the comparative method is concerned with regularities in phonological change, grammaticalization theory deals with regularities of grammatical change. In an A-Z format, this book summarizes the most salient generalizations that have been made on the unidirectional change of grammatical forms and constructions. It thus demonstrates that grammatical change is regular and also adds to our knowledge of universal properties of human languages. Indices organized by source and target concepts allow for flexible use, and the findings delineated in the book are relevant to students of language across theoretical boundaries."--Jacket.},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {2002},
  author = {Heine, Bernd and Kuteva, Tania}
}

@book{Koopman1984,
  title = {The Syntax of Verbs: {{From}} Verb Movement Rules in the {{Kru}} Languages to {{Universal Grammar}}},
  shorttitle = {The Syntax of Verbs},
  address = {Dordrecht},
  publisher = {Foris},
  date = {1984},
  author = {Koopman, Hilda Judith}
}

@article{LarsonLefebvre1991,
  title = {Predicate Clefting in {{Haitian}} Creole},
  number = {21},
  journaltitle = {NELS},
  date = {1991},
  pages = {247-261},
  author = {Larson, Richard and Lefebvre, Claire}
}

@incollection{Muysken1978,
  title = {Three Types of Fronting Constructions in {{Papiamentu}}},
  booktitle = {Studies in Fronting},
  address = {Lisse},
  publisher = {Peter dé Ridder},
  date = {1978},
  author = {Muysken, Pieter},
  editor = {Jansen, Frank}
}

@article{Ameka2007,
  title = {The Coding of Topological Relations in Verbs: {The} Case of {{Likpe}} ({{Sεkpεlé}})},
  volume = {45},
  shorttitle = {The Coding of Topological Relations in Verbs},
  number = {5},
  journaltitle = {Linguistics},
  date = {2007},
  pages = {1065--1103},
  author = {Ameka, Felix K.}
}

@book{Levinson2003,
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {Space in Language and Cognition: {{Explorations}} in Cognitive Diversity},
  shorttitle = {Space in Language and Cognition},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {2003},
  author = {Levinson, Stephen C.}
}

@incollection{BenderBannardo2005,
  location = {{Mahwah, NJ}},
  title = {Spatial Frames of Reference for Temporal Relations: {{A}} Conceptual Analysis in {{English}}, {{German}}, and {{Tongan}}},
  shorttitle = {Spatial Frames of Reference for Temporal Relations},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the {{Annual Meeting}} of the {{Cognitive Science Society}}},
  publisher = {{Lawrence Erlbaum}},
  date = {2005},
  pages = {220-225},
  author = {Beller, Sieghard and Bender, Andrea and Bannardo, Giovanni}
}

@book{Levin1993,
  location = {{Chicago}},
  title = {English Verb Classes and Alternations: {{A}} Preliminary Investigation},
  shorttitle = {English Verb Classes and Alternations},
  publisher = {{University of Chicago Press}},
  date = {1993},
  author = {Levin, Beth}
}

@inproceedings{Hopper1985,
  location = {{Chicago}},
  title = {Causes and Affects},
  eventtitle = {21st {{Regional Meeting}} of the {{Chicago Linguistics Society}}},
  booktitle = {Papers from the Parasession on Causitives and Agentivity},
  publisher = {{Chicago Linguistics Society}},
  date = {1985},
  pages = {67-88},
  author = {Hopper, Paul J.}
}

@incollection{Croft1990,
  title = {Possible Verbs and the Structure of Events},
  booktitle = {Meanings and Prototypes: {{Studies}} in Linguistic Categorization},
  address = {London},
  publisher = {Routledge},
  date = {1990},
  pages = {48--73},
  author = {Croft, William A.},
  editor = {Tsonatzidis, Savas L.}
}

@incollection{Haspelmath1993,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {More on the Typology of Inchoative/Causative Verb Alternations},
  booktitle = {Causatives and Transitivity},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1993},
  pages = {87--121},
  author = {Haspelmath, Martin},
  editor = {Comrie, Bernard and Polinsky, Maria}
}

@book{LevinHovav1995,
  location = {{Cambridge, MA}},
  title = {Unaccusativity: {{At}} the Syntax-Lexical Semantics Interface},
  shorttitle = {Unaccusativity},
  publisher = {{MIT press}},
  date = {1995},
  author = {Levin, Beth and Hovav, Malka Rappaport}
}

@book{Muysken2000,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Cambridge}},
  title = {Bilingual Speech: {{A}} Typology of Code-Mixing},
  isbn = {0-521-77168-4},
  shorttitle = {Bilingual Speech},
  abstract = {"This book provides an in-depth analysis of the different ways in which bilingual speakers switch from one language to another in the course of conversation. This phenomenon, known as code-mixing or code-switching, takes many forms. Pieter Muysken adopts a comparative approach to distinguish between the different types of code-mixing, drawing on a wealth of data from bilingual settings throughout the world. His study identifies three fundamental and distinct patterns of mixing - 'insertion', 'alternation' and 'congruent lexicalization' - and sets out to discover whether the choice of a particular mixing strategy depends on the contrasting grammatical properties of the languages involved, the degree of bilingual competence of the speaker or various social factors. The book synthesises a vast array of recent research in a rapidly growing field of study which has much to reveal about the structure and function of language."--BOOK JACKET.},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {2000},
  author = {Muysken, Pieter}
}

@book{Essegbey1999,
  title = {Inherent Complement Verbs Revisited: {Towards} an Understanding of Argument Structure in {{Ewe}}},
  isbn = {978-90-76203-08-9},
  series = {MPI Series in Psycholinguistics},
  address = {Nijmegen, Netherlands},
  publisher = {MPI},
  date = {1999},
  author = {Essegbey, James}
}

@article{Baron1971,
  title = {On Defining Cognate Object},
  volume = {5},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Glossa},
  date = {1971},
  pages = {71--98},
  author = {Baron, Naomi}
}

@book{Naess2007,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Prototypical Transitivity},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2007},
  author = {Næss, Åshild}
}

@book{Tenny1994,
  title = {Aspectual Roles and the Syntax-Semantics Interface},
  address = {Dordrecht},
  publisher = {Kluwer},
  date = {1994},
  author = {Tenny, Carol L.}
}

@book{Kemmer1993,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {The Middle Voice},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1993},
  author = {Kemmer, Suzanne}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2012,
  location = {{München}},
  title = {Betwixt and between: {Causatives} in the {{English}}-Lexicon Creoles of {{West Africa}} and the {{Caribbean}}},
  isbn = {978-3-86288-362-2},
  abstract = {Causative formation in the family of Afro-Caribbean English-lexicon Creoles (AECs) can be ordered along a continuum with an “African” and a “European” pole. On one end we find biclausal structures: A causative main verb takes a clausal complement marked for subjunctive mood. These structures appear to conform to a West African areal pattern in which subjunctive mood, instantiated in a modal complementizer, appears in a range of deontic contexts, including causatives. At the other end, causative formation involves English-style “raising”, hence reduced clauses. The prevalence of either pattern strongly correlates with the contact trajectory of an individual AEC. Languages that have been in continuous contact with English generally feature a more fragmented modal system in which causative formation follows idiosyncratic strategies. AECs that have been insulated from English for a longer period, and the African AECs in general, feature more unitary modal systems in which causative constructions are formally part of a larger functional domain of deonticity.},
  booktitle = {Analytical Causatives from `make' to `Laskma'},
  publisher = {{Lincom Europa}},
  date = {2012},
  pages = {9-39},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Leino, Jaako and Waldenfels, Ruprecht von}
}

@article{Yakpo2017a,
  title = {Towards a Model of Language Contact and Change in the {{English}}-Lexifier Creoles of {{Africa}} and the {{Caribbean}}},
  volume = {38},
  issn = {0172-8865},
  abstract = {The Afro-Caribbean English-lexifier Creoles (AECs) exhibit fascinating combinations of disparate typological characteristics. I present a model of post-formative (“post-creolization”) contact and change and provide a comprehensive inventory of contact constellations in Africa and the Caribbean. I conduct a comparative analysis of causative constructions in seven African and Caribbean AECs, argue for the notional separation of the traditional creolist terms “superstrate”, “lexifier”, “substrate” and “adstrate”, and account for the linguistic-structural relevance of these distinctions. The model can explain the typological diversity within and across the AECs, help elucidate the genealogical and areal differentiation of the AECs, and contribute to our understanding of the processes and outcomes of language contact and change in multilingual ecologies.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {English World-Wide},
  date = {2017},
  pages = {50--76},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@book{Cristofaro2003,
  title = {Subordination},
  series = {Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {2003},
  author = {Cristofaro, Sonia}
}

@incollection{Lehmann1988,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Towards a Typology of Clause Linkage},
  number = {18},
  booktitle = {Clause Combining in Grammar and Discourse},
  series = {Typological Studies in Language},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1988},
  pages = {181--225},
  author = {Lehmann, Christian},
  editor = {Haiman, John and Thompson, Sandra}
}

@book{PerkinsPagliuca1994,
  location = {{Chicago}},
  title = {The Evolution of Grammar: {Tense}, Aspect and Modality in the Languages of the World},
  publisher = {{University of Chicago Press}},
  date = {1994},
  author = {Bybee, Joan L. and Perkins, Revere D. and Pagliuca, William}
}

@book{Song2001,
  location = {{München}},
  title = {Toward a Typology of Causative Constructions},
  publisher = {{Lincom Europa}},
  date = {2001},
  author = {Song, Jae Jung}
}

@incollection{Mithun1988,
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {The Grammaticization of Coordination},
  number = {18},
  booktitle = {Clause Combining in Grammar and Discourse},
  series = {Typological Studies in Language},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1988},
  pages = {331--359},
  author = {Mithun, Marianne},
  editor = {Haiman, John and Thompson, Sandra}
}

@book{Güldemann2008,
  location = {{Berlin}},
  title = {Quotative Indexes in {{African}} Languages: {{A}} Synchronic and Diachronic Survey},
  shorttitle = {Quotative Indexes in {{African}} Languages},
  publisher = {{Mouton de Gruyter}},
  date = {2008},
  author = {Güldemann, Tom}
}

@article{KeenanComrie1977,
  title = {Noun Phrase Accessibility and Universal Grammar},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Linguistic inquiry},
  date = {1977},
  pages = {63--99},
  author = {Keenan, Edward L. and Comrie, Bernard}
}

@article{SankoffBrown1976,
  title = {The Origins of Syntax in Discourse: {A} Case Study of {{Tok Pisin}} Relatives},
  volume = {52},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Language},
  date = {1976},
  pages = {631--666},
  author = {Sankoff, Gillian and Brown, Penelope}
}

@phdthesis{Tarallo1983,
  title = {Relativization Strategies in {{Brazilian Portuguese}}},
  institution = {{University of Pennsylvania}},
  date = {1983},
  author = {Tarallo, Fernando}
}

@incollection{Keenan1985,
  title = {Relative Clauses},
  booktitle = {Language Typology and Syntactic Description. Vol. 2: {Complex} Constructions},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  date = {1985},
  pages = {141--170},
  author = {Keenan, Edward L.},
  editor = {Shopen, Timothy}
}

@incollection{Tarallo1985,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {The Filling of the Gap: {{Pro}}-Drop Rules in {{Brazilian Portuguese}}},
  isbn = {978-90-272-3525-1},
  abstract = {The papers in this volume are a selection from the paper presented at the 13th Annual Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages (1983). The languages discussed include Romance in general, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Gascon. The diversity of the topics encompassed by these papers conforms to the principal goal of the LSRL conferences: to contribute to the synchronic and diachronic description and analysis of the Romance Languages within the context of current developments in linguistic theory.},
  booktitle = {Selected {{Papers}} from the {{XIIIth Linguistic Symposium}} on {{Romance Languages}}, {{Chapel Hill}}, {{N}}.{{C}}., 24-26 {{March}} 1983},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {1985-01-01},
  author = {Tarallo, Fernando},
  editor = {King, Larry Dawain and Maley, Catherine A.}
}

@book{Bickerton1981,
  location = {{Ann Arbor}},
  title = {Roots of Language},
  publisher = {{Karoma Publishers}},
  date = {1981},
  author = {Bickerton, Derek}
}

@incollection{Aikhenvald2006,
  title = {Serial Verb Constructions in Typological Perspective},
  number = {2},
  booktitle = {Serial Verb Constructions: {A} Cross-Linguistic Typology},
  series = {Explorations in Linguistic Typology},
  address = {Oxford},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {1-68},
  author = {Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.},
  editor = {Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. and Dixon, R. M. W.}
}

@incollection{Durie1997,
  title = {Grammatical Structures in Verb Serialization},
  booktitle = {Complex Predicates},
  publisher = {CSLI Publications},
  address = {Stanford},
  date = {1997},
  pages = {289-354},
  author = {Durie, Mark},
  editor = {Alsina, Alex and Bresnan, Joan and Sells, Peter}
}

@incollection{Hajek2006,
  title = {Serial Verbs in {{Tetun Dili}}},
  number = {2},
  booktitle = {Serial Verb Constructions: {A} Cross-Linguistic Typology},
  series = {Explorations in Linguistic Typology},
  address = {Oxford},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {239-255},
  author = {Hajek, John},
  editor = {Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. and Dixon, R. M. W.}
}

@incollection{Ameka2006,
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {Ewe Serial Verb Constructions and Their Grammatical Context},
  booktitle = {Serial Verb Constructions: {A} Cross-Linguistic Typology},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {124--143},
  author = {Ameka, Felix K.},
  editor = {Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. and Dixon, R. M. W.}
}

@article{BerndtHimmelmann2004,
  title = {Depictive Secondary Predicates in Cross-Linguistic Perspective},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Linguistic Typology},
  date = {2004},
  pages = {59--131},
  author = {Schultze-Berndt, Eva and Himmelmann, Nikolaus P.}
}

@incollection{HimmelmannBerndt2006,
  location = {{Oxford}},
  title = {Issues in the Syntax and Semantics of Participant-Oriented Adjuncts: {An} Introduction},
  booktitle = {Secondary Predication and Adverbial Modification: {{The}} Typology of Depictives},
  publisher = {{Oxford University Press}},
  date = {2006},
  pages = {1--68},
  author = {Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. and Schultze-Berndt, Eva F.},
  editor = {Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. and Schultze-Berndt, Eva F.}
}

@article{Enfield2002,
  title = {Cultural Logic and Syntactic Productivity: {{Associated}} Posture Constructions in {{Lao}}},
  shorttitle = {Cultural Logic and Syntactic Productivity},
  journaltitle = {Ethnosyntax: explorations in grammar and culture},
  date = {2002},
  pages = {231--258},
  author = {Enfield, N. J.}
}

@book{Westermann1930,
  title = {A Study of the {{Ewe}} Language},
  edition = {Translated from German by A.L. Bickford-Smith},
  address = {London},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
  date = {1930},
  author = {Westermann, Diedrich}
}

@book{Doke1935,
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Bantu Linguistic Terminology},
  publisher = {{Longmans, Green and Company}},
  date = {1935},
  author = {Doke, Clement Martyn}
}

@article{Dingemanse2017,
  title = {Expressiveness and System Integration: {{On}} the Typology of Ideophones, with Special Reference to {{Siwu}}},
  volume = {70},
  issn = {1867-8319},
  shorttitle = {Expressiveness and System Integration},
  abstract = {Ideophones are often described as words that are highly expressive and morphosyntactically marginal. A study of ideophones in everyday conversations in Siwu (Kwa, eastern Ghana) reveals a landscape of variation and change that sheds light on some larger questions in the morphosyntactic typology of ideophones. This article documents a trade-off between expressiveness and morphosyntactic integration, with high expressiveness linked to low integration and vice versa. It also describes a pathway for deideophonization and finds that frequency of use influences the degree to which ideophones can come to be more like ordinary words. The findings have implications for processes of (de)ideophonization, ideophone borrowing, and ideophone typology. A key point is that the internal diversity we find in naturally occurring data, far from being mere noise, is patterned variation that can help us to get a handle on the factors shaping ideophone systems within and across languages.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {STUF - Language Typology and Universals},
  date = {2017},
  pages = {363--385},
  author = {Dingemanse, Mark}
}

@article{Kockelman2003,
  title = {The Meanings of Interjections in {{Q}}’eqchi’{{Maya}}: {{From}} Emotive Reaction to Social and Discursive Action},
  volume = {44},
  shorttitle = {The Meanings of Interjections in {{Q}}’eqchi’{{Maya}}},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Current Anthropology},
  date = {2003},
  pages = {467--490},
  author = {Kockelman, Paul}
}

@article{Ameka1992b,
  title = {Interjections: {{The}} Universal yet Neglected Part of Speech},
  volume = {18},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Pragmatics},
  date = {1992},
  pages = {101--118},
  author = {Ameka, Felix}
}

@article{Ameka1992a,
  title = {The Meaning of Phatic and Conative Interjections},
  volume = {18},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Pragmatics},
  date = {1992},
  pages = {245--271},
  author = {Ameka, Felix}
}

@book{Bloomfield1935,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Language},
  edition = {Rev. ed.},
  isbn = {978-0-04-400016-7},
  publisher = {{Allen \& Unwin}},
  date = {1935},
  author = {Bloomfield, Leonard}
}

@incollection{Figueroa2005,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Rude Sounds: {{Kiss Teeth}} and Negotiation of the Public Sphere},
  isbn = {978-90-272-4894-7},
  shorttitle = {Rude Sounds},
  number = {G34},
  booktitle = {Politeness and {{Face}} in {{Caribbean Creoles}}},
  series = {Varieties of English Around the World},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2005},
  pages = {73-99},
  author = {Figueroa, Esther},
  editor = {Mühleisen, Susanne and Migge, Bettina}
}

@article{RickfordRickford1976,
  title = {Cut-Eye and Suck-Teeth: {{African}} Words and Gestures in {{New World}} Guise},
  volume = {89},
  number = {353},
  journaltitle = {The Journal of American Folklore},
  date = {1976},
  pages = {294--309},
  author = {Rickford, John R. and Rickford, Angela E.}
}

@incollection{Mühleisen2005,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Amsterdam}},
  title = {Forms of Address in {{English}}-Lexicon {{Creoles}}: {{The}} Presentation of Selves and Others in the {{Caribbean}} Context},
  isbn = {978-90-272-4894-7},
  shorttitle = {Forms of Address in {{English}}-Lexicon {{Creoles}}},
  number = {34},
  booktitle = {Politeness and {{Face}} in {{Caribbean Creoles}}},
  series = {Varieties of English Around the World},
  publisher = {{John Benjamins}},
  date = {2005},
  pages = {195-223},
  author = {Mühleisen, Susanne},
  editor = {Mühleisen, Susanne and Migge, Bettina}
}

@article{Bilby1983,
  title = {How the ``Older Heads" Talk: {A} {{Jamaican Maroon}} Spirit Possession Language and Its Relationship to the Creoles of {{Suriname}} and {{Sierra Leone}}},
  number = {57},
  journaltitle = {New West Indian Guide/ Nieuwe West-Indische Gids},
  date = {1983},
  pages = {37-88},
  author = {Bilby, Kenneth M.}
}

@book{Wilner1994,
  location = {{Paramaribo}},
  title = {Wortubuku Ini {{Sranan Tongo}} ({{Sranan Tongo}} – {{English}} Dictionary)},
  publisher = {{Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL)}},
  date = {1994},
  author = {Wilner, John}
}

@book{Abraham1958,
  title = {Dictionary of Modern {{Yoruba}}},
  address = {London},
  publisher = {University of London Press},
  date = {1958},
  author = {Abraham, Roy Clive}
}

@incollection{Auer1998,
  location = {{London}},
  title = {Introduction: {{Bilingual}} Conversation Revisited},
  booktitle = {Code-Switching in Conversation: {{Language}}, Interaction and Identity},
  publisher = {{Routledge}},
  date = {1998},
  pages = {1-24},
  author = {Auer, Peter},
  editor = {Auer, Peter}
}

@book{Scotton1993,
  title = {Social Motivations for Codeswitching: {Evidence} from {{Africa}}},
  series = {Studies in language contact},
  address = {Oxford},
  publisher = {Clarendon Press},
  date = {1993},
  author = {Myers-Scotton, Carol}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2015,
  location = {{Berlin}},
  title = {Code-Switching and Social Change: {{Convergent}} Language Mixing in a Multilingual Society},
  isbn = {978-3-11-034687-9},
  abstract = {The South American nation of Suriname boasts an unusual degree of societal multilingualism resulting in extensive language contact. The linguistic scenario of Suriname is characterized by the presence of two numerically and socially dominant languages, namely Dutch and Sranan Tongo and the undiminished importance of large community languages like Sarnámi (Surinamese Hindustani), Ndyuka and Surinamese Javanese. At the same time, we find a tendency towards language shift towards the two dominant languages in most linguistic communities of the country.
	In this talk, I will address two issues and in doing so will focus on Sranan Tongo, Sarnámi and Javanese. First, I will attempt to identify patterns of codemixing characteristic for the Surinamese contact scenario. So far, the data has revealed particular patterns of insertional mixing and borrowing, alternational mixing, as well as complex patterns of "fusional mixing" characterized by complex calquing, congruent lexicalization, innovative approximations of donor structures and constant changes of the matrix language. Second, I will explore the possbility that differences between the codemixing patterns of particular language constellations (e.g. Sarnámi–Sranan Tongo–Dutch vs. Javanese–Sranan Tongo–Dutch) may reflect specific configurations between social groups in Suriname and the type of social change that particular groups have been and are undergoing in recent times.
	A preliminary conclusion is that mixing patterns in Suriname bear a strong overall resemblance to each other in spite of the typological diversity of the languages involved in the different language constellations. At the same time, there are significant differences between the mixing patterns in these constellations which may be caused by differences in the social processes that groups of specific languages are subjected to.},
  number = {43},
  booktitle = {Codeswitching between Structural and Sociolinguistic Perspectives},
  series = {Linguae et Litterae},
  publisher = {{De Gruyter}},
  date = {2015-01-16},
  pages = {259-287},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Stell, Gerald and Yakpo, Kofi}
}

@article{Auer1999,
  title = {From Codeswitching via Language Mixing to Fused Lects: {{Toward}} a Dynamic Typology of Bilingual Speech},
  volume = {3},
  issn = {1367-0069},
  shorttitle = {From Codeswitching via Language Mixing to Fused Lects},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {International Journal of Bilingualism},
  date = {1999},
  pages = {309-332},
  author = {Auer, Peter}
}

@article{SankoffPoplack1981,
  title = {A Formal Grammar for Code‐switching},
  volume = {14},
  issn = {0031-1251},
  abstract = {Code‐switching in situations of language contact has been studied largely from the point of view of its social determinants. This paper will propose formal means for describing the syntax of code‐switching with examples from Puerto Rican Spanish and English.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Papers in Linguistics},
  date = {1981},
  pages = {3-45},
  author = {Sankoff, David and Poplack, Shana}
}

@book{Clements2009,
  title = {The Linguistic Legacy of {{Spanish}} and {{Portuguese}}: {Colonial} Expansion and Language Change},
  isbn = {978-0-521-83175-8},
  series = {Cambridge Approaches to Language Contact},
  address = {Cambridge},
  publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
  date = {2009},
  author = {Clements, J. Clancy}
}

@article{MeechanPoplack1995,
  title = {Orphan Categories in Bilingual Discourse: {{Adjectivization}} Strategies in {{Wolof}}-{{French}} and {{Fongbe}}-{{French}}},
  volume = {7},
  shorttitle = {Orphan Categories in Bilingual Discourse},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Language Variation and Change},
  date = {1995},
  pages = {169--194},
  author = {Meechan, Marjory and Poplack, Shana}
}

@article{Adegbite1993,
  title = {Some Features of Language Use in {{Yoruba}} Traditional Medicine},
  volume = {6},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {African Languages and Cultures},
  date = {1993},
  pages = {1--10},
  author = {Adegbite, Wale}
}



@incollection{Yakpo2009complexity,
	address = {London},
	title = {Complexity revisited: {Pichi} ({Equatorial} {Guinea}) and {Spanish} in contact},
	isbn = {978-1-903292-15-0},
	abstract = {Recent attempts to prove the simplicity of Creoles with respect to non-Creoles have, like preceding ones concentrated on describing the assumed paucity of selected surfacephenomena in quantitative terms. None of these accounts has taken into consideration that typically, Creoles are languages in contact. In the multilingual speech communities of West Africa but equally so in other regions, Creoles and Pidgins are in contact with lexifier superstrates, with historically unrelated non-lexifier superstrates and with a host of adstrate and substrate languages. This paper attempts to provide answers to two questions. (1) Can we reconcile the complexity of the mixed grammar and lexicon of a language like Pichi withthe notion of simplicity given that code-mixing of the type presented here forms an integral partof the linguistic system of the language? (2) Can we reconcile the restructuring (or “elaboration”in terms of the simplicity hypothesis) of Pichi grammar and lexicon through code-mixing within the short time-span of a hundred and seventy years with the notion that the youth of Creoles makes them simpler than non-Creoles?},
	booktitle = {Simplicity and complexity in creoles and pidgins},
	publisher = {Battlebridge},
	author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
	editor = {Faraclas, Nicholas G. and Klein, Thomas},
	month = jul,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {183--215}
}

@book{Bolekia2009,
	address = {Madrid},
	title = {Diccionario español-bubi/bubi-español},
	isbn = {978-84-460-3033-1},
	language = {Spanish},
	publisher = {Akal},
	author = {Bolekia Boleká, Justo},
	year = {2009}
}

@phdthesis{yakpo_grammar_2009phd,
	title = {A grammar of {Pichi}},
	url = {http://hdl.handle.net/2066/79407}, 
	language = {English},
	urldate = {2018-03-02},
	school = {Radboud University Nijmegen},
	author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
	year = {2009}
}

@inproceedings{Yakpo2009tone,
	address = {Port of Spain},
	title = {Tone in {Pichi}},
	abstract = {Pichi, the English-lexifier Creole of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) features a mixed prosodic system similar to the ones identified for other Atlantic Creoles. The language exhibits a stratified lexicon with a majority of roots characterised by pitch accent and a minority characterised by tone.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 17th biennial conference of the {Society} for {Caribbean} {Linguistics}},
	publisher = {University of the West Indies at St. Augustine, Trinidad \& Tobago},
	author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {on CD--Rom}
}

@phdthesis{Cusic1981,
	title = {Verbal Plurality and Aspect},
	school = {Stanford University},
	author = {Cusic, David D.},
	year = {1981}
}

@incollection{dixon_adjective_2004,
	series = {Explorations in {Linguistic} {Typology}},
	title = {Adjective classes in typological perspective},
	volume = {1},
	booktitle = {Adjective classes},
	address = {Oxford},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Dixon, R. M. W.},
	editor = {Dixon, R. M. W. and Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {1--49}
}

@book{Welmers1973,
	address = {Berkeley},
	title = {African language structures},
	publisher = {University of California Press},
	author = {Welmers, William Everett},
	year = {1973}
}

@article{Essegbey2005,
	title = {The “basic locative construction” in {Gbe} languages and {Surinamese} {Creoles}},
	volume = {20},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of Pidgin and Creole languages},
	author = {Essegbey, James},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {229--267},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/linguist/Dropbox/linguistics/publications/lingpub/bibliographies/Zotero_Bib_File/storage/ZR7B5W98/jpcl.20.2.html:text/html}
}

@incollection{HaspelmathBuchholz1998,
	address = {Berlin},
	title = {Equative and similative constructions in the languages of {Europe}},
	booktitle = {Adverbial constructions in the languages of {Europe}},
	publisher = {Mouton de Gruyter},
	author = {Haspelmath, Martin and Buchholz, Oda},
	editor = {van der Auwera, Johan},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {277--334},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/linguist/Dropbox/linguistics/publications/lingpub/bibliographies/Zotero_Bib_File/storage/CGMBUCFD/viewItemOverviewPage.html:text/html}
}

@incollection{himmelmann_issues_2006,
	address = {Oxford},
	title = {Issues in the Syntax and Semantics of Participant-oriented Adjuncts: {{A}}n introduction},
	booktitle = {Secondary predication and adverbial modification: {The} typology of depictives},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. and Schultze-Berndt, Eva F.},
	editor = {Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. and Schultze-Berndt, Eva F.},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {1--68}
}

@incollection{Yakpo2017,
  location = {{Berlin}},
  title = {Creole in Transition: {Contact} with {{Dutch}} and Typological Change in {{Sranan}}},
  isbn = {978-1-61451-488-6},
  number = {14},
  booktitle = {Boundaries and Bridges: {Language} Contact in Multilingual Ecologies},
  series = {Language contact and bilingualism (LCB)},
  publisher = {{De Gruyter Mouton}},
  date = {2017},
  pages = {57--85},
  author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
  editor = {Yakpo, Kofi and Muysken, Pieter}
}

@incollection{Post2013,
	address = {Oxford},
	title = {Fa d'{Ambô}},
	volume = {2},
	isbn = {978-0-19-969140-1},
	abstract = {The Atlas presents full colour maps of the distribution among the pidgins and creoles of 130 structural linguistic features drawn from their phonology, syntax, morphology, and lexicons. In addition there are some maps with relevant sociolinguistic features. The languages include pidgins, creoles, and other contact languages based on English, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and French and languages from Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Americas. Each map is accompanied by a detailed description and discussion of the feature. The project is the successor to the successful World Atlas of Language Structures and draws on the same linguistic, cartographic, and computing knowledge and skills of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig. The Atlas is published alongside a three-volume Survey of Pidgins and Creoles which describes the histories and linguistic characteristics of 76 languages. The books have been designed, edited, and written by the world's leading experts in the field and represent the most systematic and comprehensive guide ever published to the world's pidgins, creoles and mixed languages. Individually and together the books are a unique resource of outstanding value for linguists of all persuasions throughout the world.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {The atlas of {Pidgin} and {Creole} language structures: {Portuguese}-based, {Spanish}-based, and {French}-based languages},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Post, Marike},
	editor = {Michaelis, Susanne and Maurer, Philippe and Haspelmath, Martin and Huber, Magnus},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {81--89}
}




@article{Yakpo2016only,
	title = {"{The} only language we speak really well". {The} {English} creoles of {Equatorial} {Guinea} and {West} {Africa} at the intersection of language ideologies and language policies},
	issn = {0165-2516},
	url = {http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/ijsl.2016.2016.issue-239/ijsl-2016-0010/ijsl-2016-0010.xml},
	doi = {10.1515/ijsl-2016-0010}, 
	language = {English},
	number = {239},
	urldate = {2017-05-13},
	journal = {International Journal of the Sociology of Language},
	author = {Yakpo, Kofi},
	editor = {Castillo-Rodríguez, Susana and Morgenthaler García, Laura},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {211--233}
}

@incollection{LiThompson1976,
	address = {New York},
	title = {Subject and topic: {A} new typology of language},
	booktitle = {Subject and topic},
	publisher = {Academic Press},
	author = {Li, Charles N. and Thompson, Sandra A.},
	editor = {Li, Charles N.},
	year = {1976},
	keywords = {Typology, Syntax},
	pages = {457--489}
}

@article{boersma2008,
  title={Praat: doing phonetics by computer [software package], version 5.0. 18},
  author={Boersma, Paul and Weenink, David},
  url={http://www.praat.org/},
  year={2008}
}

@misc{UNESCO1981,
  title={African languages: Proceedings of the meeting of experts on the transcription and harmonization of African languages, Niamey, Niger, July 17-21, 1978},
  author={UNESCO},
  year={1981},
  url={http://www.bisharat.net/Documents/Niamey78en.htm},
  urldate={2017-07-12}
}